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TEI: 28% NPF, 13% PCI and 53% UPF. Higher consumption of PCI: BMI (kg / m2) (β = -0.09; 95%CI -0.016 – -0.03) BMI ≥ 25.0 kg / m2 (OR = 0.97; 95%CI 0.96 – 0.99) BMI ≥ 30.0 kg / m2 (OR = 0.98; 95%CI 0.97 – 0.99) Higher consumption of PCI + AMP: BMI ≥ 25.0 kg/m2 (OR = 0.99; 95%CI 0.98 – 0.99 No significant association was found between the consumption of NPF and UPF with the evaluated incomes.
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Gender, age, skin color, geographic region, urbanity, education, family income per capita, smoking, physical activity, consumption of fruits, vegetables and beans and interaction between gender and income.
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TEI: 68.6% NPF and 29.6% UPF (the entire sample aged ≥ 10 years).
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20 to 39 years: there was no significant association between UPF consumption and the evaluated outcomes.
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1st UPF consumption quintile (reference)
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BMI (kg/m2) 40 to 59 years: 2nd (β = 0.58; 95%CI 0.09 – 1.07); 3rd (β = 0.51; 95%CI 0.02 – 1.00); 4th (β = 0.70; 95%CI 0.10 – 1.31) and 5th (β = 1.12; 95%CI 0.25 – 2.00)
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≥ 60 years: 2nd and 3rd quintiles with no difference between groups; 4th (β = 1.49; 95%CI 0.24 – 2.74) and 5th (β = 1.66; 95%CI 0.12 – 3.2) BMI ≥ 30,0 kg/m2
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≥ 60 years: 2nd (OR = 1.65; 95%CI 1.14 – 2.38); 3rd (OR = 1.74; 95%CI 1.14 – 2.67); 4th (OR = 2.07; 95%CI 1.24 – 3.45) and 5th (OR = 2.62; 95%CI 1.22 – 5.64).
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No association with overweight and obesity for 20 to 39 and 40 to 59 years.
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Model 1: energy intake of other foods, gender, education, per capita household income, physical activity and sedentary hours
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Model 2 (instrumental variables): distance from the grocery store and nearest market and urbanity + model 1.
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TEI: PF 28% and 29% for participants aged 19 to 59 years and 60 years or more, respectively.
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19 to 59 years: BMI (kg/m2) (β = 0.34; SE = 0.10) and BMI ≥ 25.0 kg/m2 (OR = 1.17; SE = 0.06)
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≥ 60 years: BMI (kg/m2) (β = 0.46; SE = 0.17) and BMI ≥ 25.0 kg / m2 (OR = 1.13; SE = 0.10).
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Model 2: for adults and the elderly, there was no significant association.
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Gender, physical activity, hours watching television, napping, smoking, “pinching” between meals, following a special diet on the baseline, BMI on the baseline and consumption of fruits and vegetables.
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1st UPF consumption quartile (reference)
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BMI ≥ 25.0 kg/m2
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2nd (HR = 1.15; 95%CI 1.01 – 1.32)
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3rd (HR = 1.24; 95%CI 1.09 – 1.43)
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4th (HR = 1.26; 95%CI 1.10 – 1.45)
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UPF consumption at least 3x/day: 10.1%.
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UPF consumption ≥ 3x/day:
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BMI ≥ 25.0 kg/m2 (16 to 59 years) or ≥ 27.0 kg/m2 (≥ 60 years) (OR = 2.33; 95%CI 1.36 – 4.03)
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Model 1: age, gender, education, race / ethnicity, family poverty rate, marital status, smoking and physical activity.
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Model 2: EIT (mediator or confounding factor).
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TEI: UPF 56.1%
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5th UPF consumption quintile versus 1st quintile (reference):
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BMI (kg/m2) (β = 1.61; 95%CI 1.11 – 2.10)
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BMI ≥ 25.0 kg/m2 (OR = 1.48; 95%CI 1.25 – 1.76)
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BMI ≥ 30.0 kg/m2 (OR = 1.53; 95%CI 1.29 – 1.81)
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WC (cm) (β = 4.07; 95%CI 2.94 – 5.19)
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WC ≥ 88 or 102 cm for M and W, respectively (OR = 1.62; 95%CI 1.39 – 1.89)
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P-value of linear trend <0.0001 for all associations.
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Adjustment for energy intake did not significantly modify the associations (data not shown in the article).
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Interaction between gender and the relative contribution of UPF to BMI, WC and overweight.
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Model 1: gender, age, education and income per household.
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Model 2: model 1 + physical activity and smoking.
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Model 3: model 2 + immigrant status.
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Model 4: model 3 + area of residence.
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Model 5: model 4 + measured weight and height versus self-reported.
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TEI: UPF 45%
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10 p.p. increase in UPF consumption:
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BMI ≥ 25.0 to 29.9 kg / m2 (OR = 1.03; 95%CI 1.02 – 1.09).
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BMI ≥ 30.0 kg / m2 (OR = 1.05; 95%CI 1.02 – 1.08)
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1st UPF consumption quartile (reference):
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BMI ≥ 30.0 kg / m2 4th (OR = 1.32; 95%CI 1.05 – 1.57)
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Model 1: gender, age, skin color, family income per capita.
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Model 2: model 1 + physical activity, smoking, SAH and DM.
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Model 3: model 2 + energy intake of the NPF and PCI group in Nova.
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Model 4: model 3 + EIT.
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TEI: 22.7% UPF 1st UPF consumption quartile (reference):
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4th (β = 0.64; 95%CI 0.33 – 0.95) – BMI (kg / m2)
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4th (β = 0.95; 95%CI 0.17 – 1.74) – WC (cm)
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1st UPF and BMI consumption quartile <25.0 kg / m2 (reference): 4th (OR = 1.31; 95%CI 1.13 – 1.51) – BMI 25.0 to 29.9 kg / m2
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4th (OR = 1.41; 95%CI 1.18 – 1.69) – BMI ≥ 30.0 kg / m2 1st quartile of UPF and WC consumption <94 cm (H) and <80 cm (M) (reference): 4th (OR = 1.41; 95%CI 1.20 – 1.66) – WC ≥ 88 or 102 cm for H and M, respectively. There was no association for category with
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WC ≥ 94 and <102 cm (H) and ≥ 80 and <88 cm (M).
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Model 1: gender, physical activity, hours watching television, BMI at baseline, smoking, use of analgesics, following a special diet at baseline, family history of hypertension, alcohol consumption, hypercholesterolemia.
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Model 2: model 1 + EIT, olive oil and fruit and vegetable intake.
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Model 1: gender, age, marital status, area of residence, education, monthly income, smoking, physical activity and EIT.
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Model 2: model 1 + BMI.
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TEI: NPF 27.10%; PCI 12.25%; PF 23.83% and UPF 36.53%.
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Medium / high adhesion to the minimally processed / processed pattern was protection for: hyperglycemia (OR = 0.25; 95%CI 0.07 – 0.98) low HDL cholesterol (OR = 0.17; 95%CI 0.05 – 0.60) metabolic syndrome30 (OR = 0.18; 95%CI 0.04 – 0.77)
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When adding BMI to the model, only the association with hyperglycemia was attenuated and was not statistically significant.
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Ultra-processed pattern was not associated with metabolic syndrome and any of its components.
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24-hour recall NOVA Classification (UPF), AHEI-2010 and FQS
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For Nova, the higher the consumption, the lower the quality of the diet. For AHEI-2010 and FQ, the higher the consumption, the better the quality of the diet.
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Age, gender, area of residence, total daily energy intake, smoking and consumption of alcoholic beverages.
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TEI: mean UPF of 51.9% (SD = 22.9).
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5th UPF consumption quintile versus 1st quintile (reference): low HDL cholesterol (OR = 2.05; 95%CI 1.25 – 3.38) metabolic syndrome30 (OR = 1.90; 95%CI 1.14 – 3.17)
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UPF consumption was not associated with other components of the metabolic syndrome.
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